Language + Literature – Page 2

McMillan and Harris: The Mother and Father of Black Fiction

Terry McMillan came on the literary scene in 1987 with her first novel Mama, however it was not until she published her third novel Waiting to Exhale in 1992 that she received fame and fortune. Waiting to Exhale told the story of four professional, middle class black women and their experiences with love. Readers experienced each character’s loneliness, destruction, happiness, sadness, sexual desires, and frustrations with black men; things that readers, especially female readers, could relate to.

While some argued the novel represented a negative view of the black woman and her relationship with black men, the novel spent months on the New York Times Bestseller list and went on to sell over three million copies, and a film adaptation was released in 1995 that featured Whitney Houston. Author and professor Daphe A. Brooks says of the novel: It marked a watershed moment in American culture as it announced and contributed to a shift in Black popular cultural consciousness and production during the last decade of the twentieth century. Advantageously positioned in the aftermath of the Clarence Thomas/Anita Hill Senate hearings, Exhale dramatically extended and popularized for mass consumption the politics of a particular kind of heterosexual, Black middle-class conflict and desire.[i]

McMillan’s novel Waiting to Exhale not only depicted a demographic, middle-class black women, of people not regularly seen in literature, but she also shed light on the complexities of relationships.

McMillan is credited for jumpstarting the African American fiction movement with Waiting to Exhale, and throughout the decade she went on to write more novels that gave glimpses of black love and published one of her most popular novels How Stella Got Her Groove Back in 1996; in 1998, the film adaptation featuring Angela Bassett and Taye Diggs was released. The novel told the story of Stella and her relationship with Winston, a man considerably younger than her. Winston taught Stella to embrace life and eventually his love because she married him. The novel mirrored McMillan’s experience with then husband, Jonathan Plummer.

How Stella Got Her Groove Back is another novel that sets McMillan apart because she reveals the questions, concerns, hopes, and fears of dating someone younger. Stella (and McMillan) has to deal with the thrills and drama that comes along with dating someone younger and at a different stage in life. Likewise, Terry McMillan’s novels did not only deal with love in terms of black men and black women, a few of her works also introduced black’s complex relationship with homosexuals. She weaves in political and social concerns in the black community, such as the understanding (or misunderstanding) of HIV/AIDS and the negative stigma of being black and gay.

Consequently it is of no surprise that another author would emerge and hit the issue of being black and gay head on instead of touching on the subject as McMillan does. Author E. Lynn Harris filled this role and shocked the world with his tales of black men on the DL and carrying on relationships with women. Harris’ novel Invisible Life (1991) told the story of Raymond Tyler struggling with his identity as a bisexual black man. In the novel, Tyler was torn between his married boyfriend and girlfriend. Although readers were stunned by the then-taboo topic, the novel went on to sell millions of copies. Harris’ novels speak to an audience that was largely ignored by authors. All of his books reached the New York Times bestseller list and he is one of the most successful black authors. He was even referred to as the male Terry McMillan.

Some were surprised by Harris’ success because the black community does not readily accept or discuss homosexuality. In an interview with Publisher’s Weekly, Harris says, “I feel like my readers get that I’m writing from the heart, and that resonates with a lot of people in the black community, women especially. Even though the character might be a gay man, they can connect with him emotionally. They can relate to being in hurtful relationships, and because they get that, it doesn’t matter if it’s a gay or a straight relationship” (2003). [ii] Even though homosexuality in the 90s was a taboo subject, readers could relate to Harris’ works. He spoke for and told stories for those who could not speak for themselves during that time.

Both authors captured readers by representing and telling stories that black women and men craved, and they provided literature for black middle-class Americans, a largely underrepresented group before the 90s. McMillan and Harris used personal experiences and turned them into fiction in order to reach and possibly help a multitude of people. Without their persistence in creating stories that people could relate to, who knows what black fiction would look like now. —B. Stewart

[i] Brooks, Daphe A. “”It’s Not Right But It’s Okay”” Taylor & Francis Online. Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society. 2 Feb. 2011. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.

[ii] Millard, Elizabeth. “Writing to Find Some Kind of Peace of Mind.” PublishersWeekly.com. N.p., 16 June 2003. Web. 21 Nov. 2015.

Niggas, Bitches, and Hoes: The Linguistics of a Decade

Nigga…bitch…hoe…Offensive language or terms of endearment? Boyz N the Hood, NWA, Terry McMillan, and other prominent black artists, directors, and authors in the 90s often used these terms interchangeably to refer to women and men. The use of these terms bring up one debate that continues to persist today: The words “nigga,” drop the –er and replace with an –a, “bitch/hoe” are not as offensive as they used to be. They are now words that black people can use to show camaraderie.

“Nigger” has a complex and touchy history in the United States. “Negro” evolved into “nigger” and became a racial slur white people used to refer to blacks. White people who used this word did not mean to express love for blacks, rather it was meant to degrade and dehumanize. However black people have retained the word, even altering its spelling in order to express brotherhood, which was commonly seen in hip-hop culture. The film Boyz in the Hood perfectly illustrates how the word was used. Main characters Tre, Doughboy, and Ricky do not hesitate to call each other or others “niggas” and no one is shocked, offended, or outraged by its use.

But does the glamorized use of the word diminish the emergence of black consciousness? Bruce Jacobs says in his book Black Manners: Navigating the Minefield between Black and White Americans that the use of “nigga” is an act of defiance, a way to destroy yourself before white people could. He goes on to say, “The 1980s and early 90s defiant use of nigga as self-reference by young black people captured, more than any other act, the desperate dilemma of black identity: self-hatred coupled with a stubborn resolve for self-determination. To proclaim oneself a nigga was to declare to the disapproving mainstream, ‘You can’t fire me. I quit’” (12).[i] One could surmise that a new consciousness is born out of the word’s harsh history. Reshaping the abusive term “nigger” to “nigga” serves as a way to reconcile the past and a way to create a new identity, one we’ve created instead of one that has been force fed to an entire population.

“Bitch, you crazy.” “That bitch is fine.” “That hoe didn’t call me back.” Although they are slightly less controversial than “nigga”, “bitch” and “hoe” are terms that were widely used in the 90s and today. The terms mean different things depending on how they are used. For instance, in Terry McMillan’s Waiting to Exhale, the main (female) characters refer to each other as “bitch” or “hoe” in jovial ways. On the other hand, when someone wants to disrespect another woman or even a man, both terms are used.

“Bitch” and “hoe” do not carry the same history as “nigga,” but all three serve as an example of the evolution of language. As a child my father often told me to never let anyone call me outside of my name (i.e. calling me a “bitch”) and I did not. Yet as time goes on, all three words roll off the tongue a little easier. The article “The Evolution of the Word “Bitch”: Sexist Slight or Empowering Expression?” states: The early 1990s, third wave feminism was born out of a need to address movements and activism of second wave feminism. Third wave feminism is known for its agenda including reproductive rights, social class, race, sexuality, “girl power,” “the glass ceiling” and the reclaiming of derogatory words. Words that they aimed to reclaim, that is “take back” and give new meaning to, included bitch, cunt, whore and spinster. The 90’s are looked back upon in history as a time of “girl power.” (Sassy Notations) [ii]

Whether for women, blacks, or both, taking back and renaming are common themes in the 90s. The basic premise on the use of “nigga,” “bitch,” and “hoe” were embraced to create new meanings and new consciousness.

It is safe to say that not everyone is using “nigga,” “bitch,” or “hoe” in the 90s were trying to create a new identity, and the reclaiming of these terms do not erase the sting that many people still feel when they hear them. Yet reclaiming and renaming provides some context for the emergence of the terms’ popularity. They were meant to add to black consciousness, not diminish it. However, I can’t help but wonder: does the continued use of “nigga,” “bitch,” and “hoe” today carry on the black consciousness of the 90s or do the reasons no longer add up?

The debate continues. —B. Stewart

[i] Jacobs, Bruce A. Race Manners: Navigating the Minefield between Black and White Americans. New York: Arcade Pub., 1999. Print.

[ii] Murphy, Kristi. “The Evolution of the Word.” Sassy Notions. WordPress.com, 01 Nov. 2009. Web. 21 Nov. 2015.

Beloved: Reconciliation and Re-memory

Beloved. The Pulitzer Prize winning novel by Toni Morrison, inspired by runaway slave Margaret Garner, tells the story of Sethe, a runaway slave that kills her daughter to save her from being taken into slavery. Years after Sethe pays the price for her crime, a mysterious girl, Beloved, comes to stay with Sethe, her daughter Denver, and her lover Paul D. Upon Beloved’s arrival, her new family feels content and for the first time, happy. Yet, as Beloved’s stay is extended, Denver and Paul D suspect that she is not who she appears to be and for Sethe, Beloved forces her to reconcile her past in order to survive the present.

Although Beloved was published in 1987, the novel had a significant impact on the 90s. The novel helped catapult Morrison into the mainstream and depicted a story of slavery that had not been previously told before. Beloved takes on the complex idea of re-memory and reconciliation. Throughout the novel characters experience re-memory (or what many just believe to be “remembering”) and attempt to reconcile the memories of the past. Sethe and Paul try to keep their slave experiences locked away, yet have to eventually face them head on. Interestingly, while Sethe fights to keep re-memory at bay, Beloved cannot recall her past. The longer Beloved stays Sethe relives more of her past. It is not until Sethe lets go of the past that Beloved disappears and she is allowed to heal.

The idea of re-memory in the novel provides context to the black experience in the 90s and presently. Tricia Rose’s Black Noise (1994) and Paul Gilroy’s The Black Atlantic (1993) both hypothesize that black people are disenfranchised and frustrated because they are still dealing with the lasting effects of slavery. In turn, blacks turn to music or other forms of expression to reconcile slavery’s effects. According to Rose and Gilroy, re-memory permeates rap, movies, texts, and in general, black culture. Essentially, black people are facing re-memory and we won’t be able to move on until we reconcile our past. The question is: how can we escape re-memory or are we destined to stay in its grasps? What has to “disappear” in order for black people to move on?

Beloved also shocks, incites, and questions humanity. Sethe firmly believes that she is justified in killing her baby and sees it as a side effect of slavery. Slavery made Sethe into the monster the others believed her to be. Slavery created a desperate mother that did not want her children to endure the agonizing injustices of slavery. Slavery forced a mother to make a gut-wrenching decision: she would rather her children die than be enslaved.

Slavery’s effects were seen in the 90s and even today. Going back to scholars Rose and Gilroy, black people are facing decisions and creating art that perpetuates those effects. There is the realization that slavery inflicted more damaging effects that probably were not even conceived of. It is no wonder why Sethe struggles to reconcile her actions and even her life. By the end of the novel, Beloved becomes imposing, dangerous, restrictive, and burdensome—just like slavery. During the reconciliation process, Beloved drains Sethe of life while she grows pregnant with it. Again, Sethe cannot thrive until she escapes Beloved or re-memory, or slavery. Black people cannot thrive until we escape re-memory, or slavery.

Toni Morrison poignantly says of the novel: “There is no place you or I can go, to think about or not think about, to summon the presences of, or recollect the absences of slaves; nothing that reminds us of the ones who made the journey and of those who did make it. There is no suitable memorial or plaque or wreath or wall or park or skyscraper lobby. There’s no 300-foot tower. There’s no small bench by the road. There is not even a tree scored, an initial that I can visit or you can visit in Charleston or Savannah or New York or Providence, or better still, on the banks of the Mississippi. And because such a place doesn’t exist (that I know of), the book had to.”[i]

The 90s was a decade that spawned black consciousness, and Beloved was no exception. The novel succeeded in creating what Morrison wanted to do; thus it goes without question that Beloved is significant to the 90s and continues to be relevant today. ––B. Stewart

[i] “A Bench by the Road.” UU World. Unitarian Universalist Association, 11 Aug. 2008. Web. 14 Nov. 2015.

The term “African-American”

In the year 1903, the great black intellectual W. E. B. Du Bois presented the idea of “double consciousness” in his book entitled The Souls of Black Folk. He was simply referring to the belief that blacks living in America saw themselves in two different aspects. These aspects were both African and American. Although the term “Negro” was still used during the time of Du Bois, his concept of double consciousness way able to provide foundation elements to the term that later became known as “African-American”. Throughout history there have been many terms to describe groups of people. For the black people born and raised in the United States, this has definitely been true. From slave, nigger, negro, to black, these particular words have all been used to describe a particular race. Fast-forward to the year 1988, when the Rev. Jesse Jackson held a news conference encouraging the use of the term African-American. This particular term to define a certain race would go on and cause much debate and controversy throughout the 90s, even to the present day.

Jesse Jackson’s decision to use the term African-American spoke to a large group of people, but at the same time gained a lot of disapproval. The 90s were very important as it relates to the image of blacks being promoted to the world. Coming up with the “correct” term to call entire race was not easy due to individual personal beliefs. The idea of moving away from the term “Black” seemed to take the political approach and get rid of an entire history. This definitely did not sit well with people who considered themselves black and as a collective people throughout the diaspora with a shared struggle. On the other hand the term African-American was found best suitable for some because of the belief that the United States had made progressive steps since the Civil Rights Movement to consider a marginalized race citizens. While there were debates about what term to use, one of the most important things was exactly how a race was being treated by “its” country.

The 90s witnessed everything from the popularity of the Cosby Show to a resurgence of Black Nationalism beliefs. Both aspects represented the many different people that made up a race. The term African-American eventually became nationally recognized in 1997 by the United States government. Although the term was recognized by the government did not mean that everyone was on board. The same government that had recognized the term was the same government that was still plagued with different aspects of discrimination. Overall, the term African-American is still debatable and there has been individuals pushing for the idea of just being considered American in more recent times. Only time will tell if the term African-American will be around in the future or become a thing in the past like previous terms used to describe a race of people. – Andy Reid